Vascular homeostasis depends, in part, upon the regulated secretion of biochemical modulators by endothelial cells. Under normal physiological conditions, endothelial cells synthesize and secrete nitric oxide, prostacyclin, PG12, adenosine, hyperpolarizing factor, tissue factor pathway inhibitor, and scuplasminogen activator. Endothelial cells also activate antithrombin III and protein C, which, collectively, mediate vascular dilation, inhibit platelet adhesion, platelet activation, thrombin formation and fibrin deposition. Nitric oxide, in particular, plays a critical role in vascular homeostasis (Pearson, J. D. (2000) Lupus 9 (3): 183–88; Becker et al. (2000) Z Kardiol 89 (3): 160–7; Schinin-Kerth, V. B. (1999) Transfus Clin Biol 6 (6): 355–63).
Production of nitric oxide and prostacyclin, which are powerful vasodilators and inhibitors of platelet aggregation and activation, underlies the antithrombotic activity of the endothelium (Yang et al. (1994) Circulation 89 (5): 2666–72). Nitric oxide is synthesized at a constitutive, basal level from arginine by nitric oxide synthase, and this synthesis is stimulated by the vaso-active agents acetylcholine and bradykinin. It has been shown that inhibition of nitric oxide synthase by the arginine analogues monomethyl-L-arginine (L-NMMA) and nitro-L-arginine methyl ester (L-NAME) reduces nitric oxide levels and leads not only to vasoconstriction, as measured by intravascular ultrasound imaging, but also to an increase in platelet aggregation (Yao et al. (1992) Circulation 86 (4): 1302–9; Emerson et al. (1999) Thromb Haemost 81 (6): 961–66).
Perturbation of the endothelium as the result of atherosclerosis, diabetes, postischemic reperfusion, inflammation or hypertension for example, leads to a prothrombotic state in which the endothelium elaborates a further set of biochemical modulators including TNF-α, IL-8, von Willebrand factor, platelet activating factor, tissue plasminogen activator, and type 1 plasminogen activator inhibitor. (Pearson, J. D. (2000) Lupus 9 (3): 183–88; Becker et al. (2000) Z Kardiol 89 (3): 160–7; Schinin-Kerth, V. B. (1999) Transfus Clin Biol 6 (6): 355–63). In addition, the vascular endothelium synthesizes and elaborates the endothelins, which are the most potent vasoconstrictor peptides known.
The endothelins are a family of 21-amino acid peptides, i.e., endothelin-1, endothelin-2, and endothelin-3, originally characterized by their potent vasoconstricting and angiogenic properties (see, e.g., Luscher et al. (1995), Agents Actions Suppl. (Switzerland) 45: 237–253; Yanagisawa et al. (1988) Nature 332: 411–415). The three isopeptides of the endothelin family, endothelin-1, endothelin-2, and endothelin-3, possess highly conserved amino acid sequences that are encoded by three separate genes (see, e.g., Inoue et al. (1989) Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 86: 2863–67; Saida et al. (1989) J Biol Chem 264:14613–16). Although the endothelins are synthesized in several tissues including smooth muscle cells, endothelin-1 is exclusively synthesized by the vascular endothelium (Rosendorff, C. (1997) Cardiovasc Drugs 10 (6): 795–802). The endothelins are synthesized as preproendothelins of two hundred and three amino acids. The endothelin signal sequence is cleaved and the protein is then further proteolytically processed to yield the mature, biologically active 21 amino acid form (see, e.g., Kashiwabara et al. (1989) FEBS Lett 247: 337–40). Endothelin synthesis is regulated via autocrine mechanisms including endothelin and non-endothelin converting enzymes as well as by chymases (Baton et al. (1999) Curr Opin Nephrol Hypertens 8 (5): 549–56). Elaboration of endothelin-1 from the endothelium is stimulated by angiotensin II, vasopressin, endotoxin, and cyclosporin inter alia (see e.g. Brooks et al. (1991) Eur J Pharm 194: 115–17) and is inhibited by nitric oxide.
Endothelin activity is mediated via binding with preferential affinities to two distinct G protein-coupled receptors, ETA and ETB, in an autocrine/paracrine manner (see, e.g., Hocher et al. (1997) Eur. J Clin. Chem. Clin. Biochem. 35 (3): 175–189; Shichiri et al. (1991) J. Cardiovascular Pharmacol. 17: S76–S78). ETA receptors are found on vascular smooth muscle linked to vasoconstriction and have been associated with cardiovascular, renal, and central nervous system diseases. ETB receptors are more complex and display antagonistic actions. ETB receptors in the endothelium have the dual roles of clearance and vasodilation, while ETB receptors on smooth muscle cells also mediate vasoconstriction (Dupuis, J. (2000) Can J Cardiol 16 (1): 903–10). The ETB receptors on the endothelium are linked to the release of nitric oxide and prostacycline (Rosendorff, C. (1997) Cardiovasc Drugs 10 (6): 795–802). There are a variety of agonists and antagonists of endothelin receptors (Webb et al. (1997) Medicinal Research Reviews 17 (1): 17–67), which have been used to study the mechanism of action of the endothelins. Because endothelin is known to have powerful vasoconstrictive activity, endothelin antagonists in particular (also termed “endothelin receptor antagonists” in the art) have been studied with regard to their possible role in treating human disease, most notably, cardiovascular diseases such as hypertension, congestive heart failure, atherosclerosis, restenosis, and myocardial infarction (Mateo et al. (1997) Pharmacological Res. 36 (5): 339–351).
Moreover, endothelin-1 has been shown to be involved in the normal functioning of the menstrual cycle. Menstruation represents a remarkable example of tissue repair and replacement, involving the regulated remodeling and regeneration of a new layer of endometrial tissue lining the uterus. This repair and remodeling process is remarkable in that it is accomplished without scarring, a phenomenon generally not seen in other organs of the body. Defects in that repair process are believed to be the basis of excessive or abnormal endometrial bleeding in women with documented menorrhagia as well as in women carrying subcutaneous levonorgestrel implants (NORPLANT) for contraceptive purposes. In both of these groups of patients, only very low levels of endometrial endothelin-1 have been detected as compared with control populations. Moreover, it has been indicated that endothelin-1 not only may play a role in effecting cessation of menstrual bleeding but endothelin-1 may also have a mitogenic activity required for regenerating and remodeling of endometrial tissue after menstruation (see Salamonsen et al. 1999, Balliere's Clinical Obstetrics and Gynaecology 13 (2): 161–79; Goldie 1999, Clinical and Experimental Pharmacology and Physiology 26: 145–48; Salamonsen et al. 1999, Clin. Exp. Phamaol. Physiol. 26 (2): 154–57).
In summary, vascular homeostasis reflects a dynamic balance between two physiological states mediated by the vascular endothelium. The first, which has been termed antithrombotic, is characterized inter alia by the production of nitric oxide, vasodilation, inhibition of platelet attachment and activation, and by repression of endothelin-1 synthesis. The second or prothrombotic physiological state is characterized inter alia by the production of endothelin-1, vasoconstriction, platelet activation, and hemostasis (Warner (1999), Clinical and Experimental Physiology 26: 347–52; Pearson, (2000), Lupus 9(3): 183–88).
In light of the physiological importance of vascular homeostasis, there is a need for methods and compositions that are capable of modulating one or more aspects of the above processes. More specifically, there is a need for compositions and methods for the modulation of endothelin release, vasoconstriction, and blood flow out of a breached vessel and which would therefore be useful for effecting cessation of bleeding. That is, although such compositions and methods would act in a manner that is not dependent upon physical barrier formation, coagulation, or blood clot formation, such compositions and methods would nevertheless contribute, inter alia, to the achievement of hemostasis. Accordingly, such methods and compositions would be expected to have therapeutic applications for the treatment of diseases or conditions arising as a consequence of the perturbation of vascular homeostasis. Moreover, in view of the systemic effects resulting, e.g., from administration to patients of endothelin-1 antagonists as described supra, there is an even greater need for compositions and methods that produce localized and transient physiological responses, including, but not limited to, stimulation of endothelin-1 release, in such patients.